What a battery consists of, how it is organized

The highest percentage of battery recycling occurs in Australia, with approximately 80% of batteries being recycled. In contrast, America and European countries have recycling rates of around 60% and 30%, respectively. Unfortunately, in Russia and other developing countries, there is not much emphasis placed on the importance of recycling, leading to batteries being thrown into regular household waste containers.

Here is an outline of the battery recycling process:

1. The galvanic cells are sorted based on their composition and charge levels.
2. Gaseous plants are used to remove any oxidation or combustible materials.
3. The particles resulting from combustion are removed and released into the atmosphere.
4. The remaining purified elements are broken down into smaller pieces and melted.
5. Non-metallic substances are incinerated, leaving behind slag that is removed.
6. The liquid alloys are separated and distributed according to their weight.

Recycling practices across different countries

Recycling batteries and accumulators requires ten times more energy than their production. In order to prevent this process from straining a country’s budget, regulations and fees have been implemented.

In Germany, approximately 100,000 tons of waste are collected for recycling each year. The country employs the pyrometallurgical recycling method, which enables the processing of large quantities of material. However, this method has resulted in a decline in the quality of recycled materials.

Within the European Union, the cost of recycling is already factored into the price of batteries. Moreover, customers can avail of a discount on the purchase of new galvanic cells if they return used ones for recycling.

Russia didn’t begin recycling current sources until 2014 when a plant in Chelyabinsk implemented a hydrometallurgical method. In that year, approximately 18 tons of used current sources were sent for recycling. The plant is capable of recycling 15 tons of waste per year, with the recovered material accounting for 80%. Previously, there were only plants for storage of used batteries due to the high cost of recycling.

Batteries are power sources that greatly facilitate everyday life. Without them, many devices we use on a daily basis would be rendered useless. Galvanic cells come in various types and sizes, ensuring that everyone can find the right one for their needs.

However, it is crucial to remember that batteries pose significant risks to your health and safety. It is essential to learn proper disposal methods and never store them in your home.

0 Batteries

Composition of Batteries

There are four categories of batteries. Despite having a common operational concept, every power supply possesses a distinct arrangement and comprises diverse components.

"Finger" and "pinky" batteries

"Finger" and "pinky" batteries are types of small-sized cylinders that are commonly used. They are composed of several components:

• a negative charge known as the cathode;
• an insert that acts as a sealing gasket;
• a body;
• a membrane;
• an electrolyte, which facilitates the chemical reaction;
• a rod made of a carbon-based compound, such as coal or carbon black;
• a lock washer;
• a positive charge known as the anode.

This is the standard construction of most cylindrical batteries. However, there are also devices that include a carbon rod, metal components, and special powder.

What a round battery consists of

The battery, which is commonly referred to as a "pill" due to its unique flattened shape, finds frequent usage in watches and a variety of alarm systems. Its composition includes the subsequent components:

1. One of the covers fulfills the role of the anode.
2. The second cover acts as a cathode and serves as a negative contact.
3. An electrolyte-impregnated gasket is also present.
4. The battery contains mercury dioxide.
5. Zinc powder is also a component of the battery.
6. There is a waterproof layer present.
7. A sealing ring is used to ensure reliable sealing.

Cell phone battery

The design of a cell phone battery is more complex compared to regular batteries. Its components include:

1. Positive and negative terminals;
2. Anode casing;
3. Cathode holder;
4. A substance for sealing;
5. Separator;
6. Insulating material;
7. Protective membrane;
8. Diaphragm;
9. Housing made of aluminum or another metal.

What the "crown" consists of

The power source has a distinct rectangular shape that sets it apart from other batteries. Its positive and negative contacts are situated vertically, with the positive contact positioned above the negative one. These contacts can be found in the upper section of the device, while the bottom features a plastic base. A plate, attached to the negative contact, extends outward.

Constructed out of metal, the body of the device houses six small, flattened rectangles, each functioning as an individual battery. These "kegs" hold a charge of 1.5V. A special component is located between the plates.

The power supply has a relatively simple structure:

1. Two contacts, one positive and one negative;
2. An aluminum or other metal housing;
3. Two plastic plates;
4. Six interconnected "kegs," each with a voltage of 1.5V;
5. A rod made of a carbon compound;
6. movie;
7. external covering.

What the housing of the batteries is made of

Housing plays a crucial role in the power source design, serving as a protective barrier that contains the battery’s contents and safeguards them from harm.

Which power supplies have a zinc casing?

There is a common inquiry among individuals about the diverse applications of Zn, as it can be utilized in various experiments or simply sold. As a result, all salt batteries come equipped with a casing made of zinc, which is usually indicated directly on the casing.

As of late, there has been a growing trend of current sources featuring casings made of tin or iron. The choice of material depends on the internal arrangement of the batteries. Iron and tin offer optimum protection and enhanced durability.

Its design is characterized by simplicity and consists of the following elements:

• Top and bottom parts;
• A side oval component;
• A label that indicates the type of power source.

Chemical composition of batteries

The chemical composition varies depending on the specific power source. The majority of power cells typically consist of the following chemical compounds:

• iron;
• lead;
• manganese;
• aluminum;
• lithium;
• cadmium;
• mercury (though, it is currently being avoided).

The best rechargeable batteries



The Bmw i8: ignition, electricity! Rechargeable batteries are unique chemical power sources that set them apart from many others primarily because of their ability to be used again. This is because all the chemical reactions that take place in them can be reversed, allowing for multiple cycles of energy storage. As a result, a wide range of devices and appliances can have long-lasting autonomy.

This particular battery is composed of lead and is designed with a dry cell and AGM technology. It has a rated voltage capability of up to 6V and a capacity of 4.5 Ah. The maximum service life is limited to 6 years. In terms of dimensions, the length is 70 mm, the height (including the contact wire) is 107 mm, and the width is 47 mm. This battery is suitable for both UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) and internal installation purposes. It weighs 730 grams and comes equipped with a SH-4.8 pin provided by the manufacturer.

• Key features of this battery include its significant capacity, long period of use, compact size, possibility of internal installation, and high rated voltage.
• However, it’s worth mentioning that this battery does come with a relatively higher price compared to other options on the market. Additionally, it has a reduced duration of operation if the manufacturer’s rules are violated.

To ensure optimal performance and a long lifespan for the battery, it is important to take into account the specific guidelines outlined by the manufacturer in the operating instructions.

Delta Gel 12-20

An example of a sealed, maintenance-free lead-acid battery is a device known as AGM+GEL, which combines AGM and GEL technology. This unique production method ensures optimal charging performance and reliable operational stability. These batteries are versatile, suitable for both buffer and cyclic mode usage, making them ideal for powering autonomous energy resources. With a lifespan of 10-12 years, they offer long-term reliability. At a temperature of 25 degrees Celsius, the nominal capacity of the battery after a 20-hour charge is 20 Ah. Moreover, the self-discharge rate is only 3% per month when stored at a temperature of 20 degrees Celsius. The dimensions of this device are 181x77x167 mm, and it weighs 5.22 kg.



• Durable lifespan;
• Small size;
• Supports deep discharging;
• Compatible with alternative power sources;
• Lightweight.
• Relatively expensive;
• Unique branding.

This type of battery is suitable for outdoor activities as it can power various devices.

Security Force SF 1207

When purchasing, it is important to note that these high-quality batteries are specifically designed for the security and fire systems of homes. They are stationary and fall under the lead-acid type of maintenance-free batteries. The production process utilizes the reliable AGM technology.

These batteries can be utilized in both buffer and cyclic modes. Their lifespan is limited to 3-6 years. At 25 degrees Celsius, the internal resistance of a fully charged battery is 30 mOhm. In the same conditions, the self-discharge rate is 3% of capacity per month. The dimensions of the battery are 151x65x94 mm, with a nominal voltage of 12 V. The capacity can reach up to 7 Ah.

The AGM technology, which has already been proven, is utilized for their production. These products have the ability to be utilized in both buffer and cyclic modes. The duration of their lifespan is limited to 3-6 years. At 25 degrees Celsius, the internal resistance of a battery that is charged to 100% is 30 mOhm. In those same conditions, self-discharge is equal to 3% of the battery’s capacity each month. The battery’s dimensions are 151x65x94 mm and it has a nominal voltage of 12 V, with a capacity of 7 Ah.

• No restrictions on air transportation;
• UL compliance;
• Possibility of operation in any position;
• High energy density;
• Long service life;
• Low self-discharge.

The battery case is constructed from ABS plastic, which possesses the characteristic of not supporting combustion. This product has the ability to be charged from a standard electrical socket with a voltage of 220 V.

Each battery pack is marked with a crossed-out trash can icon, indicating that it should not be disposed of with regular household waste. This is because batteries contain harmful chemicals that can cause damage.

1. Lead. This element can harm the nervous system and kidneys.
2. Cadmium. It has a negative impact on the lungs and genitourinary system.
3. Mercury. This element is particularly damaging to the brain.
4. Nickel. It can have a detrimental effect on the skin, leading to dermatitis.
5. Alkaline substances. These substances can be harmful to mucous membranes.

When batteries corrode, they release chemical elements into the soil, which can then contaminate water sources that people rely on for drinking water.

If a power source is incinerated in a factory, it will lead to atmospheric pollution. Mercury is the most hazardous substance to the body as it has a tendency to accumulate in the tissues of living organisms.

It is not advisable to store used batteries at home due to the release of chemical elements into the air. Nowadays, there are designated containers available in cities for battery disposal, where used power sources are stored. These containers can be found in supermarkets, schools, dormitories, and businesses. Subsequently, the batteries are collected and transported to recycling plants. However, the number of these plants is limited due to the infrequent disposal of used batteries at collection points. This is mainly attributed to the failure of these collection points to meet the daily quota of required sources. The recycling process involves the production of new items from the recyclable materials.

The proper disposal of batteries is also essential for the recycling process of secondary raw materials, as it reduces the need to extract resources from the environment. This not only contributes to the preservation of our natural resources but also minimizes the overall environmental impact. In fact, it is interesting to note that just one recycled battery can be utilized to create a pencil lead. Additionally, metals such as iron and steel can be transformed into useful items like cutlery, including knives, forks, and spoons.

Let’s explore the inner workings of an electric battery and the chemical reactions that take place between its components:

• Negatively charged hydroxide ions (2OH-) interact with zinc (Zn) in the anode section. This chemical oxidation reaction creates zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)₂) and releases a water molecule and negatively charged electrons. These electrons are now free to move and accumulate on the brass pin (the current sink of the negative electrode).
• Simultaneously, manganese dioxide (2MnO₂) combines with a water molecule (H₂O) from the electrolyte, along with a free electron. In this chemical reduction reaction, manganese dioxide transforms into manganese oxide (Mn₂O₃). The manganese oxide no longer requires the hydroxide ion atom, thus releasing it back into the electrolyte.

Thus, electrons gather together at the negative end of the battery, forming a cluster. Due to the unequal distribution of negatively charged electrons between the negative and positive poles, a voltage difference is established. This voltage difference can be measured using a multimeter.

The electrons, being negatively charged, repel each other and naturally try to move to the region with fewer electrons. However, the separator within the battery prevents them from flowing towards the positive terminal. If an external path is provided for the electrons, such as by connecting a light bulb, they will flow through that path and perform work, causing the bulb to glow.

To gain a better understanding of how a battery operates and what occurs inside it, you can watch the demonstration video provided below.

History of the ordinary battery

The term "battery", which originated from the French word "batterie", has been widely adopted in Russian.

Its etymology is linked to an artillery battery, as this was historically the initial form of battery. Over time, the term came to encompass the grouping of similar objects in a broader sense.

The battery originated officially in 1800, when Italian physicist Alessandro Volta created a device known as the "volt pole" based on the experiments of Italian physician and anatomist Luigi Galvani. Volta constructed a stack of zinc, copper, and felt plates soaked in sulfuric acid solution, which reached a height of half a meter. When Volta touched the ends of the stack, he experienced a highly sensitive electric shock. This marked the beginning of the electrical era.

Alessandro Volta’s invention caused a sensation in society, earning him numerous honors and accolades. His name was immortalized as the unit of electric voltage. Luigi Galvani also received recognition for his contributions. The galvanic cell invented by Volta is named after him.

Galvanic cells are categorized into two types: primary and secondary.

All batteries belong to the primary galvanic cell category.

Secondary galvanic cells, known as batteries, are capable of converting electrical energy from an external current source into chemical energy for storage and then converting it back into electrical energy when needed.

In 1866, Georges Leclanchet invented one of the earliest galvanic cells that could be used outside of laboratories.

The Leclanché cell is constructed with a zinc anode, a cathode made of manganese dioxide with carbon, and it is immersed in an electrolyte containing ammonium chloride, specifically ammonium salt.

Over time, the Leclanché cell underwent modifications. Instead of a simple zinc anode, it started being produced in the shape of a zinc cup. Inside this cup, there is a cathode made up of a blend of manganese dioxide and graphite. The cathode contains a carbon rod at its center, which serves as a current collector. Surrounding the cathode is an electrolyte composed of ammonium chloride with the addition of zinc chloride. However, unlike the original Leclanché cell, this electrolyte is not in liquid form but rather thickened into a gel-like consistency by incorporating starch and flour. This design choice is made to prevent the electrolyte from leaking or drying out during both storage and operation of the cell.

The cells with thickened electrolyte are commonly referred to as "dry cells".

A surge in the battery industry occurred with the development of alkaline batteries. Eveready (now Energizer) first introduced alkaline batteries in 1959. The basic principle of operation is similar to that of a salt battery – with a zinc anode and a manganese dioxide cathode. The main distinction lies in the electrolyte composition, which is not ammonium salt but an alkaline solution, typically potassium hydroxide. In an alkaline battery, the anode consists of a paste made of zinc powder and the electrolyte is housed within a cathode comprising a mixture of manganese dioxide and graphite.

The separation between the anode and cathode is achieved by using a thin separator that is impregnated with electrolyte. These components are then enclosed within a steel case. Interestingly, the configuration of the alkaline cell is the opposite of the salt cell. In the alkaline cell, the body is positive (+) and the central current sink is negative (-).

The purpose behind this design is clear. In a salt cell, the chemical reaction uses up all the components – anode, cathode, and electrolyte. However, in an alkaline cell, only the anode and cathode are consumed, while the electrolyte remains intact. This means that there is very little electrolyte present, allowing for a larger amount of anode and cathode in the cell, which greatly enhances its electrical capacity. Common galvanic cells vary in their form factor.

There is variation in size and shape for batteries that have the same chemical composition. To help you identify finger and pinky batteries, we have created a convenient battery size cheat sheet for AA and AAA batteries.

Cylindrical batteries

Size	Common Name	Width (mm)	Height (mm)	Chemical Composition	Appearance
A (23)	Mini pinky	10.5	28.9	Saline, alkaline
AA (03)	Index finger	14.5	50.5	Saline, alkaline, lithium
AAA (6)	Middle finger	10.5	44.5	Saline, alkaline, lithium
AAAA (40)	Ring finger	8.3	42.5	Saline, alkaline
C (14)	Thumb	26.2	50	Saline, alkaline
D (20)	Big toe	34.2	61.5	Saline, alkaline
PP3	Battery for medical devices	26.5	48.5	Saline, alkaline, lithium

Replacing an old-fashioned cylindrical battery is not really a complicated task. All you have to do is find a battery with the same chemical composition and size specifications, which should be clearly indicated on the battery casing. Here’s an example:

• R23 – saline A;
• LR03 – alkaline AA;
• SR6 – lithium AAA.

On the other hand, mercury and silver batteries are commonly found in a circular shape, known as a "tablet" in everyday language. Circular batteries come in a wide range of sizes, without adhering to a single standard.

This photo shows a variety of circular battery sizes.

Manufacturers are able to make them as large as they desire, making it challenging to find suitable replacements when the battery dies. However, the advantage is that these types of batteries are limited in their usage to a very narrow range of devices. Our recommendation is to carefully read the labels on the battery case and search for similarly labeled batteries online or at your closest store.

Energy density

There are some fascinating patterns when considering the volume, rated capacity, and stored energy of disassembled smartphones and their batteries.

The volume has barely changed

Throughout the course of smartphone development, the battery capacity has generally remained stagnant, with only minor increases observed in high-end flagship models and larger-screen tablets like Samsung’s Galaxy Note lineup or the iPhone Plus series of phablets.

Despite the use of the "packaged cell" concept (enclosed in a polymer or foil casing), there has not been any significant decrease in the overall size of batteries.

The capacity of the battery has increased as lithium-ion and lithium-polymer technologies have advanced and the energy requirements of smartphone hardware have increased.

There is a noticeable trend of higher energy density in smartphone batteries. From 2012 to 2026, the average energy density has increased by approximately 50%. It is expected that in 2026 and 2026, manufacturers will introduce innovations to further enhance the energy density of current battery sizes.

Whether it’s worth replacing batteries with rechargeable batteries

When it comes to items found in the household, such as children’s toys, tools, and flashlights that are used throughout the day, there is no clear advantage to using rechargeable batteries over regular batteries.

Additionally, it is important to consider the limitations of nickel-metal hydride rechargeable batteries. These batteries have a lower voltage, typically around 1.25 Volts, and even a slight drop of 0.25 Volts can render them ineffective. They are not suitable for devices that have a low power consumption, as they tend to self-discharge at a rate of several tens of percent per year. Hence, they are better suited for situations that require constant use over a short period of time!

Please be aware that lithium batteries should never be recharged. There is a risk of the battery exploding or catching fire if you try to charge it. These batteries are designed for one-time use only, so please do not attempt to recondition them.

Lead batteries, on the other hand, are not ideal for typical household tasks and should not be compared to regular batteries in terms of functionality.

The battery production process begins with the cutting of steel plates into oval shapes. These shapes are then folded into metal tubes, commonly known as cases. Inside the case, various chemical components are placed, including graphite, silver catalyst, manganese dioxide, barium sulfate, zinc, thickener, and potassium hydroxide. Assembling a battery is not always a simple task.

Next, the cathode chemicals are rolled into granules using a press. A groove is then applied to the body of the battery to facilitate soldering. A sealant is applied to the negative pole, ensuring a secure connection. Simultaneously, another machine cuts perforated paper that will be used in the battery. An adhesive is then applied near the negative pole, securing the paper in place. While the housing of the battery moves along the conveyor, the adhesive dries, completing the battery assembly process.

First, potassium hydroxide or electrolyte is introduced. Then, zinc helium is injected into the anode cavity, giving the helium a bright and shiny silver hue. To secure the charge accumulation point, a welder attaches 4-inch nails to the battery cover. Subsequently, the negative pole is sealed. Following that, all edges are bent, resulting in the energy cell taking its final form.

An electronic device specifically designed for this purpose meticulously examines each power cell to identify any defects and ensure a charge of 1.5 volts. The final step involves affixing a control sticker. Once this is completed, the power supplies undergo an oven process. Inside the oven, the temperature reaches 198 degrees and the power supplies are exposed to it for just 3 seconds. This ensures that the control sticker adheres firmly to the surface.

Classification by electrolyte type (simplified)[edit | correct code]

Type	Advantages	Disadvantages
Dry ("salt", carbon-zinc).	The most inexpensive and widely produced. However, it has the lowest capacity and a declining discharge curve. It performs poorly with heavy loads (high current) and is also not suitable for low temperatures.
Heavy Duty ("heavy duty" dry cell, zinc chloride)	Cheaper than alkaline batteries, this type is better at handling high current and low temperatures. However, it has a low capacity and a decreasing discharge curve.
Alkaline (alkaline, alkaline-manganese).	This type is moderately priced and offers better performance than the previous ones at high current and low temperatures. It also maintains a low total resistance when discharged. Alkaline batteries are widely available. However, like the others, it has a decreasing discharge curve.
Mercury	Mercury batteries provide voltage constancy, high energy capacity, and energy density. However, they are expensive and are hardly produced anymore due to the harmfulness of mercury.
Silver	Silver batteries have a high capacity and a flat discharge curve. They perform well at both high and low temperatures and have an excellent shelf life. However, they are expensive.
Lithium	Lithium batteries offer the highest capacity per unit mass. They have a flat discharge curve and excellent performance at both low and high temperatures. They also have an extremely long storage time and provide a high voltage per cell. Lithium batteries are lightweight. However, they are expensive.

Form factor of common galvanic cells

Name	Voltage	Diameter	Height	Standard (alkaline/salt)
ANSI	IEC
Finger	1.5	14.5	50.5	AA	LR6/R6
Pinkie	1.5	10.5	44.5	AAA	LR03/R03
Baby	1.5	26.2	50	C	LR14/R14
Mono	1.5	34.2	61.5	D	LR20/R20
9 V Bloc, Krona	9	26 x 22 x 67	1604D	6LR61/6F22
CR2032 (coin)	3	20	3.2	5004LC	CR2032

Lead-acid battery

Car batteries are typically lead-acid batteries with a nominal voltage of 2.1V. These batteries were originally developed by French physicist Gaston Plante in 1859 and have been widely used in the market ever since.

Unlike the eco-friendly and energy-saving batteries that are popular today, lead-acid batteries rely on gelatinous lead at the negative end and lead dioxide at the positive end, with sulfuric acid as the electrolyte. When ions from the negative terminal enter the electrolyte and are absorbed by the positive terminal, electricity is generated. This process reverses during charging.

Lead-acid batteries find their most common use in the automotive industry, where they power the ignition and lighting systems of cars. They are also often employed as backup power sources in telephone towers.